West Africa

West Africa

In the western Sahel the rise of settled communities occurred largely as a result of the domestication of millet and of sorghum. Archaeology points to sizable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 2nd millennium BC. Symbiotic trade relations developed before the trans-Saharan trade, in response to the opportunities afforded by north-south diversity in ecosystems across deserts, grasslands, and forests. The agriculturists received salt from the desert nomads. The desert nomads acquired meat and other foods from pastoralists and farmers of the grasslands and from fishermen on the Niger River. The forest-dwellers provided furs and meat. Dhar Tichitt and Oualata in present-day Mauritania figure prominently among the early urban centers, dated to 2,000 BC. About 500 stone settlements litter the region in the former savannah of the Sahara. Its inhabitants fished and grew millet. It has been found[by whom?] that the Soninke of the Mandé peoples were responsible for constructing such settlements. Around 300 BCE the region became more desiccated and the settlements began to decline, most likely relocating to Koumbi Saleh. Architectural evidence and the comparison of pottery styles suggest that Dhar Tichitt was related to the subsequent Ghana Empire. Djenné-Djenno (in present-day Mali) was settled around 300 BC, and the town grew to house a sizable Iron Age population, as evidenced by crowded cemeteries. Living structures were made of sun-dried mud. By 250 BCE Djenné-Djenno had become a large, thriving market town.

Lishe ya kuku

LISHE YA KUKU NA KUCHANGANYA CHAKULA

Uhakika daily/ 4 weeks ago

LISHE YA KUKU:
Ili kuku waweze kuishi, kukua vizuri, kunenepa na kutaga mayai mengi ni lazima wale chakula kingi na chenye ubora unaotakiwa. Uwingi na ubora wa lishe ya kuku unaweza kuainishwa katika makundi ya vyakula kama ifuatavyo:

1. Vyakula vya kutia nguvu
2. Vyakula vya kujenga mwili
3. Vyakula vya kuimarisha mifupa
4. Vyakula vya kulinda mwili
5. Maji.

Makundi ya vyakula:
Vyakula vya kutia nguvu:

Vyakula vya mifugo vifuatavyo vinawekwa katika kundi hili;

1. Pumba za mahindi, pumba laini za mpunga, na, pumba laini za ngano.
2. Nafaka kama vile mtama , chenga za mahindi ,chenga za mchele, uwele , na ulezi
3. Mimea ya mizizi kama vile muhogo, viazi vitamu na magimbi. Kabla ya kulisha kuku 

hakikisha mizizi hiyo inalowekwa kwa muda wa saa moja au kupikwa kabla ya kukausha ili kuondoa sumu ambayo kwa asili imo katika vyakula vya aina hii.Inashauriwa kuwa  mizizi hiyo ilishwe kwa kiasi cha asilimia 10% ya chakula chote anacholishwa kuku.


Katika kundi hili la kutia nguvu ,vyakula vya mafuta kama vile mafuta ya kutoka kwenye vyakula vya mafuta kama mashudu ya mimea ya mafuta, mafuta ya samaki husaidia kuongeza nguvu na joto mwilini. Vyakula vya kutia nishati huchangia asilimia 60-70 ya mchanganyiko wote wa chakula.

1.        Vyakula vya kujenga mwili:

• Mashudu :Haya ni makapi ya mbegu za mimea aina ya mikunde na vyakula v vinavyotoa mafuta kama vile alizeti, mawese, karanga, soya ,korosho, na ufuta .
• Damu ya wanyama iliyokaushwa (waliochinjwa na kukaguliwa), hii inafanywa ili kuepusha uwezekano wa kuku kupata magonjwa ya kuambukiza .
• Mabaki ya samaki ya samaki/dagaa na nyama.
• Vyakula asilia kama vile minyoo, mayai ya mchwa, Masalia ya nyama toka kwenye ngozi/mifupa, wadudu walioteshwa kutokana na damu au nyama iliyooza na vyakula vya aina nyingine.
• Vyakula hivi huchangia asilimia 20 hadi 30% ya mchanganyiko wote wa chakula cha kuku.

2. Vyakula vya kuimarisha mifupa(madini): a)Hivi ni vyakula vya madini ambavyo huhitajika kwa ajili ya kujenga mifupa, maganda ya mayai, kukua na kuuweka mwili wa ndege (kuku) katika hali ya afya njema kwa ujumla.

b) Madini ya muhimu ni madini ya chokaa (calcium) na fosiforasi (phosphorus). Ili kuku watage mayai yenye ganda gumu ni lazima wapate madini ya chokaa maganda ya konokono na mayai yaliyosagwa vizuri. Lakini inapendekezwa kwamba unapoongeza madini ya fosforasi inakubidi uongeze pia madini ya chokaa kadri inavyopasa ,kwasababu kiwango cha aina moja kikizidi kuliko cha aina nyingine husababisha upungufu wa kile kidogo
Viinilishe vya madini vinavyotakiwa ni pamoja na;

• Majivu ya mifupa yaliyosagwa vizuri, unga uliosagwa wa magamba ya konokono wa baharini, konokono wa nchi kavu na maganda ya mayai yaliyochomwa . Kabla maganda ya mayai na nyumba za konokono havijatumika inashauriwa yachomwe moto mkali au yachemshwe ili kuua vijidudu vya maradhi.
• Chumvi ya jikoni
• Madini yaliyotengenezwa viwandani kama vile Di-calcium phosphate
• Magadi (kilambo).

 4.      Vyakula vya kulinda mwili:
Kundi hili linajumuisha vyakula vya mbogamboga kama vile;

• Mchicha, samadi ya ng’ombe ambayo haijakaa muda mrefu baada ya kunyewa, mchicha pori, Chinese kabeji n.k.
• na Mchanganyiko wa vitamini uliotengenezwa na viwanda vya madawa (vitamin premix).
• Jua ni muhimu katika kuhakikisha vitamini A na D zinatumika vizuri mwilini, kwahiyo banda ni lazima lijengwe kwa mtindo ambao unaruhusu mwanga kupita hasa nyakati za asubuhi na jioni.
• Chakula cha kuku wanaofugwa ndani ni lazima kichanganywe na vitamini zinazotayarishwa viwandani.

KUCHANGANYA CHAKULA CHA KUKU:
Njia za kuchanganya chakula cha kuku;
Kuna njia kuu mbili za kuchanganya chakula cha kuku, nazo ni;

• Kuchanganya chakula kwa mashine;
• Njia hii hutumika viwandani kuchanganya chakula kwa ajili ya kuku wanaofugwa katika mashamba makubwa.
• Kuchanganya chakula majumbani (home made ration): Hii ni njia inayotumika kuchanganya chakula kwa ajili ya kulisha kundi dogo la kuku na njia ambayo inaweza kutumiwa na wafugaji wadogowadogo.

VIFAA; Beleshi /koleo(spade), Turubai/sakafu safi, Viinilishe , Viroba/Magunia kwa ajili ya kuhifadhia chakula kilichochanganywa.

Chakula kilichochanganywa kinaweza kuwekwa katika uzani wa kilo 25-kilo 50, au kilo 100.



MCHANGANUO WA VIINILISHE VYA CHAKULA CHA KUKU:


Aina ya chakula                                          kiasi


i. Vyakula vya kutia nguvu mwilini:

• Pumba za mahindi                                  kilo   48
• Pumba laini za mpunga                          kilo   26

            Jumla                                                    kilo 74

  ii. Vyakula cha kujenga mwili : 

• Mashudu ya alizeti                              kilo 18
• Damu ya wanyama                              kilo   1
• Mabaki ya samaki /dagaa                    kilo   3

          Jumla                                                    kilo  22


iii.Vyakula vya kuimarisha mifupa                                      (Madini):

• chumvi ya jikoni                                                                 kilo ½
• chokaa(dicalciumphosphate)…                                          kilo 2
• poultry premix/                                                                   kilo ½ 
• unga wa mifupa                                                                  kilo 1

          Jumla                                                                                  kilo 4


Mahitaji halisi ya viinilishe kwa muhtasari:

• Vyakula kutia nguvu mwilini                             kilo 74
• Vyakula vya kujenga mwili                                kilo 22
• Vyakula vya kuimarisha mifupa (Madini)          kilo 4

  JUMLA                                                                      100

Jumla ya mchanganyiko wa vyakula                     kilo 100


HATUA ZA KUCHANGANYA CHAKULA CHA KUKU:
HATUA YA KWANZA:

Katika hatua ya kwanza utaanza kuchanganya vyakula vya madini
Changanya , chokaa, chumvi na majivu ya mifupa pig mix vizuri - huu utauita mchanganyo Na.1

HATUA YA PILI:
Changanya mchanganyo huo na damu pamoja na samaki waliosagwa - huu utauita mchanganyo Na. 2

HATUA YA TATU:
Mchanganyo Na.2 uchanganye na mashudu vizuri ambao utauita mchanganyo Na.3.

HATUA YA NNE:
Mchanganyo Na.3 umwage juu ya rundo la pumba iliyochanganywa (pumba ya mahindi na pumba laini ya mpunga).

Chukua beleshi /koleo safi lililo kavu na kulitumia kuchanganya rundo la chakula ili kusambaza viinilishe vizuri.

Mambo ya kuzingatia katika kulisha na kutunza chakula cha kuku:

• Baada ya kuchanganya chakula kitawekwa kwenye viroba au magunia na kutunzwa ghalani (stoo) hadi pale kitakapohitajika kwa ajili ya kulisha kuku.
• Hakikisha kuku wanapata lishe kadri inavyopendekezwa na wataalamu.
• Chakula kilichochanganywa ni lazima kiwekwe sehemu kavu ili kisiharibiwe na unyevunyevu kama vile kwenye chaga mabanzi yaliyotandazwa juu ya mawe yalipangwa vizuri
• Chakula kilichoharibika hakifai kulisha kuku kwani kinaweza kusababisha matatizo ya afya.
• Chakula kilichochanganywa kinatakiwa kisikae muda mrefu baada ya kutayarishwa.

Vyakula vya ziada:
Ili kuhakikisha kwamba kuku wanapata viinilishe vya kutosha kuku wanaweza kupewa mchwa na mafunza.

Vilevile vitu mbadala aina ya nafaka vinavyopatikana hutegemea sana aina ya mazao yanayolimwa katika eneo husika.

Mbinu za kuotesha mchwa na funza: Funza na mchwa ni chakula kizuri na rahisi chenye viinilishe aina ya protini kwa kuku wanaofugwa kwa mfumo huria unaoboreshwa. Hata hivyo vyanzo hivi vya chakula cha protini huchangia tu vile ambavyo kuku wanatakiwa kupewa.

1. Inashauriwa uwape vifaranga hao funza na mchwa kwa sababu ndio wanaohitaji protini kwa kiasi kikubwa na cha kuaminika.
2. Funza na mabuu yanaweza kuoteshwa kwa njia rahisi na kutumika kuboresha chakula cha vifaranga.
3. Mafunza na mabuu yanaweza kuoteshwa kwa kutumia damu, viungo vya ndani ya tumbo la ng’ombe pamoja na samadi ya ng’ombe.
4. Chungu kijazwe maji theluthi moja ya ujazo wake, inzi watakuja na kutaga mayai katika mchanganyiko ambao mafunza walioteshwa wataanza kula mchanganyiko huo.
5. Baada ya hapo vitu hivi vyote vitachanganywa pamoja katika chungu kimoja kikubwa ambacho kitaachwa wazi wakati wa mchana na kufunikwa wakati wa usiku.
6. Siku tano baadaye maji yatajazwa kwenye mtungi huo na mafunza yatakusanywa wakiwa wanaelea juu. Baada ya kukusanya waoshe vizuri na maji halafu lisha kuku moja kwa moja.
7. Kumbuka kuweka chungu kinachooteshwa mafunza kuweka mbali na maeneo ya watu ili kuepuka harufu inayoweza kusumbua watu.

 KULISHA KUKU:  

 Makadirio ya chakula cha kuwalisha vifaranga 100/siku moja:

Umri (wiki baada ya kuzaliwa)	Idadi ya  vifaranga	Kiasi kinachotakiwa Kwa siku moja(kilo)
1	100	1
2	100	1
3	100	2
4	100	3
5	100	4
6	100	5

Maelezo kwa ufupi  kuhusu kulisha kuku:

• Ni vigumu kukadiria mahitaji ya chakula cha kuku wanaojitafutia chakula, lakini inakadiriwa kuwa kuku mmoja mkubwa wa uzito wa kilo 1-2 anahitaji chakula chenye uzani wa gramu 80-160 kwa siku kwa kuku wanofugwa ndani lakini wale kuku wanafugwa kwa mfumo wa huria nusu huria mahitaji yanakadiriwa kupungua hadi kufikia gramu 30-50 kwa siku .
• Ifahamike pia kuwa kiasi cha chakula hutegemea mahitaji kutokana na uzito na uzalishaji, mfano kuku anayetaga na anayekua wanahitaji chakula kingi zaidi ya wale ambao hawatagi au wamekoma kukua.
• Hakikisha kuku wanawekewa chakula na maji safi kwenye vyombo safi na kubadilisha kila vitakapoisha.

The history of Africa

The history of Africa

begins with the emergence of Homo sapiens in East Africa, and continues into the present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing nation states. The recorded history of early civilization arose in the Kingdom of Kush, and later in Ancient Egypt, the Sahel, the Maghreb and the Horn of Africa. During the Middle Ages, Islam spread west from Arabia to Egypt, crossing the Maghreb and the Sahel. Some notable pre-colonial states and societies in Africa include the Kingdom of Nri, Nok culture, Mali Empire, Songhai Empire, Benin Empire, Ashanti Empire, Ghana Empire, Mossi Kingdoms, Mutapa Empire, Kingdom of Mapungubwe, Kingdom of Sine, Kingdom of Sennar, Kingdom of Saloum, Kingdom of Baol, Kingdom of Cayor, Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Kingdom of Kongo, Empire of Kaabu, Ancient Carthage, Numidia, Mauretania, Aksumite Empire, Ajuran Sultanate, and the Adal Sultanate. From the mid-7th century, the Arab slave trade saw Muslim Arabs enslave Africans following an armistice between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Kingdom of Makuria after the Second Battle of Dongola in 652 AD. They were transported, along with Asians and Europeans, across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert. From the late 15th century, Europeans joined the slave trade, with the Portuguese initially acquiring slaves through trade and later by force as part of the Atlantic slave trade. They transported enslaved West, Central, and Southern Africans overseas. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European colonization of Africa developed rapidly in the Scramble for Africa. It is widely believed that Africa had up to 10,000 different states and autonomous groups with distinct languages and customs before it was colonized. Following struggles for independence in many parts of the continent, as well as a weakened Europe after the Second World War, decolonization took place, culminating in the 1960 Year of Africa. Africa's history has been challenging for research in the field of African studies because of the scarcity of written sources in large parts of the continent, particularly with the destruction of many of the most important manuscripts from Timbuktu. Disciplines such as the recording of oral history, historical linguistics, archaeology and genetics have been crucial.

HISTORY: EMERGENCE OF AGRICULTURE

Emergence of agriculture

Around 16,000 BC, from the Red Sea hills to the northern Ethiopian Highlands, nuts, grasses and tubers were being collected for food. By 13,000 to 11,000 BC, people began collecting wild grains. This spread to Western Asia, which domesticated its wild grains, wheat and barley. Between 10,000 and 8000 BC, Northeast Africa was cultivating wheat and barley and raising sheep and cattle from Southwest Asia. A wet climatic phase in Africa turned the Ethiopian Highlands into a mountain forest. Omotic speakers domesticated enset around 6500–5500 BC. Around 7000 BC, the settlers of the Ethiopian highlands domesticated donkeys, and by 4000 BCE domesticated donkeys had spread to Southwest Asia. Cushitic speakers, partially turning away from cattle herding, domesticated teff and finger millet between 5500 and 3500 BC. In the steppes and savannahs of the Sahara and Sahel in Northern West Africa, the Nilo-Saharan speakers and Mandé peoples started to collect and domesticate wild millet, African rice and sorghum between 8000 and 6000 BC. Later, gourds, watermelons, castor beans, and cotton were also collected and domesticated. The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting in domestication. They also started making pottery and built stone settlements (see Tichitt and Oualata). Fishing, using bone-tipped harpoons, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains. In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in an expanding rainforest and wooded savanna from Senegal to Cameroon. Between 9000 and 5000 BC, Niger–Congo speakers domesticated the oil palm and raffia palm. Two seed plants, black-eyed peas and voandzeia (African groundnuts), were domesticated, followed by okra and kola nuts. Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest.[17] Most of Southern Africa was occupied by pygmy peoples and Khoisan who engaged in hunting and gathering. Some of the oldest rock art was produced by them. Just prior to Saharan desertification, the communities that developed south of Egypt, in what is now Sudan, were full participants in the Neolithic revolution and lived a settled to semi-nomadic lifestyle, with domesticated plants and animals.It has been suggested that megaliths found at Nabta Playa are examples of the world's first known archaeoastronomical devices, predating Stonehenge by some 1,000 years. The sociocultural complexity observed at Nabta Playa and expressed by different levels of authority within the society there has been suggested as forming the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt. By 5000 BC, Africa entered a dry phase, and the climate of the Sahara region gradually became drier. The population trekked out of the Sahara region in all directions, including towards the Nile Valley below the Second Cataract, where they made permanent or semipermanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and Eastern Africa. Since then, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa.

Mwalimu wa sekondari maroni

Mwalimu wa sekondari mbaroni kwa kumwita Rais Magufuli dikteta

Uhakika daily / 1 hour ago

Augustine Ollomi

Khadija Rashid, Kagera

MWALIMU wa shule ya sekondari Nyakisasa, Deogratius Simon (34) anashilikiwa na Jeshi la Polisi mkoani Kagera, akituhumiwa kumkashifu, Rais Dk. John Magufuli kupitia mtandao wa kijamii wa Facebook.

Kamanda wa Polisi mkoa wa Kagera, Augustine Ollomi amesema mwalimu huyo anashikiliwa kwa kosa la kuikashfu serikali na kumkashfu Rais Magufuli  kuwa ni dikteta anayeminya demokrasia.

Anadaiwa kutenda kosa hilo kati ya mwaka 2016 – 2018 kupitia mtandao wa kijamii ambapo inadaiwa alikuwa akisambaza ujumbe ambao polisi wanaona ulikuwa na lengo la kumchafua Rais Magufuli.

Shule ya sekondari Nyakisasa ipo katika wilaya ya Ngara, mkoani Kagera na kwamba kosa hilo ni matumizi mabaya ya mtandao.

Wakati huo huo, Mkuu wa Jeshi la Polisi wilayani Ngara, Abed Maige amewaonya watu wasiopenda amani hapa nchini na hivyo kutumia mitandao ya kijamii kuivuruga waache mara moja kwa kuwa wanabainika sheria itachukua mkondo wake.

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Kilimo cha pilipili mbuzi

MAMBO YA MSINGI YA KUKUMBUKA UKITAKA KUFANYA KILIMO CHA PILIPILI MBUZI.

Uhakika daily/ 10 hours ago

Ili kupata mazao bora inabidi kuandaa shamba vizuri kwa kulisafisha na kuondoa mabaki yote ya mazao ya zamani na kuyachoma moto ili kuondoa mazalia ya wadudu kutoka katika mazao yaliyopita.  

pia ni  vyema kufanya kilimo cha mzunguko ili kuepuka wadudu kufanya makazi ya kudumu katika shamba lako. 

Kwa pilipili mbuzi ni vyema kuchagua shamba ambalo halijawahi kulimwa karibuni nyanya, tumbaku au viazi mviringo kwani wadudu wanaodhuru mazao haya wanadhuru pia pilipili mbuzi.

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